Translating Botswana’s Concept of Botho into a Culture of Military Professionalism

The Botswana Defence Force’s culture of military professionalism has been systematically constructed around cultural values of democracy, service to the public, and accountability.

A Botswana Defence Force honor guard. (Photo: AFP/Monirul Bhuiyan)

Since its creation, the Botswana Defence Force (BDF) has demonstrated an enduring commitment to a culture of military professionalism. This culture has contributed to the BDF consistently being recognized as one of the most capable, trusted, and respected militaries in Africa. Grounded in constitutional provisions and the Botswana Defence Act of 1977, this culture is reinforced through professional military education institutions, alignment with Batswana cultural values, robust civilian oversight structures, and international security partnerships.

Botswana’s ongoing efforts to inculcate such a culture of professionalism, while unique, may hold lessons applicable in other contexts. To better understand how this culture has been created and sustained, the Africa Center for Strategic Studies spoke with several Botswana officers who shared their views on how Botswana’s culture of military professionalism emerged:

• H.E. Ambassador Major General (Ret.) Mpho Churchill Mophuting, Ambassador of Botswana to the United States of America*
• Colonel Philimon Obakeng Molate, Defense Attaché, Embassy of Botswana in the United States of America
• Brigadier General (Ret.) Gaseikanngwe Ace Peke, former Assistant Chief of Staff of Personnel, Botswana Defence Force
• Colonel Batlhatlosi Phejana, Assistant Secretary for Defence Policy, Botswana Ministry of Defence and Security, Justice and Security*

* Position held at time of interview

A State that Predates the Defense Force

Botswana’s Defence Force (BDF) was established in 1977, emerging from the paramilitary Police Mobile Unit established under the then Bechuanaland Protectorate. That the BDF grew from a police force is noteworthy, General Peke highlighted. At independence, Botswana’s political leaders decided that, given the country’s limited resources and the fact that “we had a stance of peaceful coexistence with our neighbors, that we should channel our efforts toward economic development” rather than have an expensive defense force.

The BDF was established 11 years after independence—only when Botswana’s political leadership determined it was necessary to protect the country’s territorial integrity. At the time, fighters from the liberation struggles in neighboring Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa had begun to enter Botswana. “Given the political and economic landscape at the time,” General Peke added, “it had to be a small, affordable, apolitical, and professional defense force.”

“The state [of Botswana] does not owe its existence to the military, as is the case in many countries where the military fought for independence,” Colonel Phejana elaborated. “Rather, the government of Botswana, through an Act of Parliament, decided to establish the BDF. And that Act was very clear in laying the foundations of professionalism for the BDF and making it an apolitical, subservient military institution, loyal to the constitutionally elected government of the day.”

Democracy, Leadership, Discipline, Accountability, Integrity, and Service

The officers all pointed to the Constitution and the BDF Act as the basis for civilian control of the BDF. “The Constitution provides for fundamental rights and freedoms, including expression, assembly, and association,” Colonel Molate explained. General Peke added that the BDF Act is very clear with regard to the BDF being apolitical and recognizing civilian authority in all matters of governance.”

The officers also pointed to the importance of leadership. As Ambassador Mophuting emphasized, “the BDF has been fortunate since its creation to have had good, accountable leadership. That’s professionalism: an accountable and respectable military that subordinates itself to the civilian masters. And what’s important is that nobody has ever broken that promise, that law. We build on that foundation. It’s inculcated right from the start in the enlisted, as well as in the young officers who come up. When I joined the military, 10 years after [the BDF Act] was put in place, that was the culture that I found, and that was the culture as I grew in rank with from a young officer to a field officer to a general officer. It became a culture that must be maintained.”

Ambassador Mophuting added, “I always say that there are no bad soldiers, only bad leaders. Sometimes leadership is very painful and lonely. So, it’s really about demonstrating good behavior as a leader so that others can follow. It’s really important how you actually inculcate that. And you need to be able to walk the talk. There’s no point in just saying something when you’re doing something which is completely opposite. That dents your reputation as a leader. Also, leadership at a certain level needs to be very transparent, which the government has legally mandated. So, you have to be able to account for your assets and your own behavior.”

The officers also all mentioned Botswana’s “botho” ethos. Colonel Phejana explained that “botho is about humility and interdependence—an ‘I am because you are’ humanity—treating a fellow human being as you want to be treated yourself.”

Ambassador Mophuting elaborated that “bothu, botho, or ubuntu is a discipline value.” In his view, discipline is what “differentiates a professional military from a ragged army or from an organization that doesn’t follow military structures.” Discipline also includes, “understanding, on the part of general officers, that they serve their political masters. Discipline from below, the generals understand, means that they need to be that link with the troops—fostering cooperation and following the laws, rules, and regulations of the defense force. When you become frustrated about something, you may end up making the wrong decision. But when you are disciplined, you can restrain yourself from that.”

Skyline of Botswana’s capital, Gaborone. (Photo: Helen Lamour)

Integrity is another core value of the BDF. Ambassador Mophuting defined it “as the conversation between yourself and God, when nobody else is looking. You know what to do—even to give advice as a professional, without fear or favor, because people know that what you are saying is not skewed toward anything. … There is an unwritten contract between an officer and other ranks, and between an officer and his superiors. People know that you will not renege on that word.”

Integrity is related to discipline, Colonel Phejana elaborated, in that it includes “always doing things right, in accordance with established principles and procedures, and having the courage to acknowledge mistakes when they occur—and having the courage to account for one’s shortcomings. We are accountable to the government, to our political leaders, and they in turn are accountable to the nation.”

Imbuing all these values is a devotion to duty, the officers emphasized, and the notion that “you are there to serve the people.”

Kgotla: Participatory Local Governance Creates a Culture of Democracy

Botswana’s democratic culture is based upon the “kgotla” system—a form of participatory local governance. As General Peke explained, “the political landscape in our country from the early days has been structured on the traditional kgotla system, where every village, every clan, has its own kgotla. Each kgotla is led by a chief and elders, with participation from the rest of the tribe. If you juxtapose that to a government, you see the chief as perhaps equating to the president or prime minister. The elders equate to the parliament. But the elders also provide the judicial aspect of the kgotla.”

Colonel Molate provided an example of when the kgotla might be consulted: “If there’s a shortage of water, the people will come to the kgotla upon the call from the chief, and they will debate on how they’ll be able to get water to that area. Then, whatever they’ve proposed, it’s sent to the national government, and the government will provide assistance to solve the problem.”

General Peke noted, “democracy in Botswana is as old as the nation itself. And one can argue that we inherently learned and embraced democratic norms from our earliest cultural interactions.” Moreover, because “Botswana is generally a very peaceful nation. We have a mantra that speaks volumes as to our fundamental governance principles. What we say is ’Ntwa kgolo ke ya molomo,’ meaning ’A war of words is absolute.’ So, Botswana believes in consultations more than in physical confrontations and that it is best to resolve issues by discussion.”

The Role of Professional Military Education in Building a Professional Force

The officers explained that the values that underpin military professionalism are taught not only at professional military education (PME) institutions, but throughout Botswana’s educational system. Within PME institutions, moreover, these values are taught from the very beginning. As General Peke observed, “within our military setup, we teach civil-military relations and good governance. We really emphasize this with our NCOs [noncommissioned officers], our junior officers, including what it means to respect civilian authority and what good governance means.”

Botswana Defence Force students work together during the Basic Tactical Intelligence Course. (Photo: Chris Wyatt)

Because promotion is based on merit as well as on educational achievement, advancement is another opportunity to further consolidate these values among the force. Colonel Molate noted that “the BDF’s leaders have always emphasized the importance of education and training in helping the BDF assume a posture of professionalism, and that the BDF has adopted a comprehensive approach to PME to encompass both service-specific and joint programs, such as joint exercises or exchange of resources or expertise.”

PME institutions also play a key role in the management of the force, particularly regarding promotions. General Peke added, “succession planning is very important, especially within the BDF where the retirement age for officers is lower relative to any other public servant.”

This was intended to prevent the BDF from becoming a top-heavy organization. As General Peke noted, “I’ve had experience of serving elsewhere regionally, and these are the kinds of things we get to see. I saw lower ranks where someone had gone years without any promotions, and you have all these old men as privates and lance corporals. So, they had these junior officers, second and first lieutenants, trying to command these old men; that created chaos, and there was no discipline. The old men were saying, ‘Who are these young guys, 2 or 3 years in, trying to command me?’” In General Peke’s view, such structures are detrimental to professionalism.

To avoid this problem in the BDF, according to Colonel Phejana, professional military education is viewed as “a career development program.”

Ambassador Mophuting emphasized that building a professional force “all starts at the military academy, as a cadet. That’s where if you lose the foundation, it’s very difficult [to recover]. The academy is where you turn civilians into soldiers. It’s a very difficult task because, in our system, for you to go to the military academy, you must first have a college degree. So, you are expected to change somebody’s behavior, something that he’s accumulated or adopted over 23 years of life, in just 12 months. That means it has to be very deliberate and be aligned with the values of society and with the values of the organization.”

After leaving the military academy, Ambassador Mophuting explains that a young officer is assigned to a certain unit, which has its own culture within the larger military culture, meaning they go through regimental training. “That makes you an infantry officer as opposed to an artillery officer, and so on. These are the cultures that you have to develop and get right. Then the third stage is the defense and command and staff colleges. Then the last place is the war college. We don’t have one, but we still follow the model that for officers to get to a certain level, a prerequisite is [attending] first the staff college and the war college.” For this final stage, Botswana relies on international partners.

For Ambassador Mophuting, attending the war college is a fundamental stage in the career of a senior officer because “it brings you closer to how you work outside of the defense force. You now find yourself in politics. We are very apolitical, but you can’t avoid politics because, if you’re going to be briefing politicians, you need to understand their thinking, how they do things. We talk about issues of resources, that’s a political issue. It is the politicians who control resources through the power of the purse in parliament. So those are the people that you need to form an alliance with—you need to understand them, they need to understand you. Because tomorrow you’ll be standing in front of them and convincing them of why you need to be resourced in that way. It’s a very important step in terms of professionalism.”

The Importance of International Partnerships

All the officers emphasized the importance that international partners have played in building a professional BDF, thanks to the training and education they have provided. They highlighted the roles that the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, France, India, and partners across Africa have played in this regard.

A BDF soldier speaks at a staff update during a joint exercise in Rwanda. (Photo: Heather Doppke)

In the early years of the BDF, General Peke explained that an Indian Army training team played a central role in creating the Force Training Establishment. The officers further expounded that they benefited from other opportunities, such as attending the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in the United Kingdom, the military academy in Greece, the Air Command and Staff College at Maxwell Air Force Base in the United States, the 12-month Senior Command and Staff course in Ghana, the National Defense University in Washington, and the War College in China. More than 70 percent of the BDF’s officers have attended war colleges in the United States.

Colonel Phejana elaborated that “officers who do well in their courses in Botswana have an opportunity to go abroad for comparative studies. For example, after having completed the junior command and staff course at the top of my class, I was sent to Canada for the same program. My first interaction with military officers of my level from all over the world was an eye-opener to me. I came back a better officer than before I left.”

The Defence Council

The Botswana Defence Council is the governing body responsible for the overall direction, strategy, and oversight of the BDF. General Peke remarked that the Defence Council comprises ministers—including those tasked with defense, security, and finance—and the permanent secretaries (the chief of staff equivalent), such as the Permanent Secretary to the President. To avoid conflicts of interest, the Commander and Deputy Commander of the BDF participate as ex officio members. If the BDF wishes to reallocate resources, it must request permission from the Defence Council, which transmits the request to the minister for submission to Parliament. If the approval is granted, the law is amended accordingly.

According to the BDF Act, the Defence Council also plays a role in promotion decisions, which helps reinforce a merit-based force. As Colonel Phejana explained, “since promotions to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and above are the responsibility of the President, these recommendations will go through the minister responsible for defense. So, in that case, the Defense Council is involved.”

The Defence Council also provides a venue for recourse for military personnel. While the BDF Act establishes a code of discipline, Colonel Phejana explained that after a case has been adjudicated by court-martial, the accused may appeal to the Defence Council. If the Defence Council dismisses the case, the appellant may pursue further review, first before the High Court, which is a civilian court under the Minister of Justice, and ultimately to the Court of Appeal, the highest court in the country. These mechanisms provide an additional layer of accountability in the military justice system.

Strong Barrier between Military and Politics

As General Peke noted, the senior officers who became politicians, including General Khama—who served as President from 2008 to 2018—did so only after they retired. Colonel Phejana emphasized that while service members have the right to vote, the BDF Act prohibits soldiers and officers from being members of any political party. This also means that political affiliation cannot play a role in military promotions.

Following the November 2024 elections, when the Botswana Democratic Party, which had been in power for 58 years since independence, lost at the polls, the outgoing president conceded defeat and facilitated a smooth handover. Each of the officers observed that, as expected, the BDF stayed true to its apolitical posture and enabled the peaceful transition process.

Measuring and Meeting Benchmarks toward Strategic Objectives

Ambassador Mophuting noted that the BDF has “a strategy, with strategic objectives, and goals. We normally try to align our strategy with the government’s 4-year national development plan. We have a monitoring and evaluation plan, with midterm reviews to see if we’re still aligned. That’s how we know where we are, what the challenges are, how we can improve, and ensure that we fulfill our objectives.”

Colonel Phejana detailed that “success is measured through milestones. If you look at capacitating the BDF in transport, for instance, we have a government-wide appraisal tool that lays out objectives for the year with quantitative milestones. So, there’s monitoring and evaluation of everything that we do. At the end of the year, you see if you did well and come up with remedial measures accordingly.”

Emergency Response

Colonel Molate emphasized that the BDF’s commitment to service extends to situations of natural disaster or emergency. In these instances, “members of the BDF do not only defend the country but are also expected to go beyond traditional military duties. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the President instructed the BDF to form the National Emergency Operations Center (NEOC). This was the first time this structure was implemented in our country, which is why the military was tasked to do it. The military brought to the table a body of experience in emergency care and disaster response. This has helped build a level of trust and respect for the military because when the need arises, we deploy, and we give it our all.”

The Botswana–Namibia border at Ngoma. (Photo: Frans-Banja Mulder)

Peacekeeping Operations

Botswana’s longstanding participation in peacekeeping operations has both contributed to building professionalism and strengthened its capacity to respond to regional security challenges.

Colonel Molate pointed to the BDF’s deployment to the African Union mission in Somalia and to the Southern African Development Community (SADC) mission in Mozambique as indicative of the BDF’s professional performance. For General Peke, these successful deployments, where the BDF operated with “a demonstrable cohesiveness at all levels of operations, are a major achievement and indication of the BDF’s professionalism.”

Maintaining Rigorous Accountability Mechanisms

The officers noted that the BDF High Command has never been wracked by corruption allegations. They pointed to asset declaration mechanisms as key to ensuring integrity and maintaining accountability.

A member of the Botswana Defence Force asks a question during a conference. (Photo)

Moreover, the BDF Commander routinely appears before Parliament’s defense oversight committee as well as the parliamentary accounts committee. In General Peke’s view, this could be further improved upon because “some of these people are new in Parliament. They’ve not really gone through any concrete advisory role in terms of what the military is and what it’s supposed to do, and what its role and mandate is. They would benefit from learning about the costs of operations, procurement, and the length of these processes in order to provide better oversight.”

Seeking Citizen Feedback on Operational Success

Colonel Phejana explained that “We receive both appreciation and criticism from parliament, the public and civil society. They do not shy away from doing so.  When we do something not quite right, they say it out loud. For external feedback, it comes unsolicited, we appreciate and we learn from it. We have a very active Facebook page where we receive most of the feedback. We welcome and learn from it.”

Colonel Phejana added that academia and universities also evaluate the BDF’s activities. During the deployment in Mozambique for the SADC mission, for example, “the public told us that we did well, and we are thankful for that.” Another example where the public was very engaged in giving feedback was during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the military deployed to prevent the spread of the disease, enforce curfews, and distribute vaccines. “At the end of the day, the public said we did well. This regular feedback from the public is a very important tool for learning and growth.”

As Ambassador Mophuting explained, it is crucial for “the society itself to understand [their defense forces] because it’s all about serving the people. It’s not my military or the defense forces’ military. It’s the people’s defense forces. So, having that relationship, good civil-military relations with the people, that’s what really matters. People need to understand that you are there to serve them, you are there to listen to their voices and respect them.”